Schultz, D. M. & Yoon, T. P. Solar synthesis: prospects in visible light photocatalysis. Science 343, 1239176 (2014).
Hoffmann, M. R., Martin, S. T., Choi, W. & Bahnemann, D. W. Environmental applications of semiconductor photocatalysis. Chem. Rev. 95, 69–96 (1995).
Pinaud, B. A. et al. Technical and economic feasibility of centralized facilities for solar hydrogen production via photocatalysis and photoelectrochemistry. Energy Environ. Sci. 6, 1983–2002 (2013).
Nishiyama, H. et al. Photocatalytic solar hydrogen production from water on a 100-m2 scale. Nature 598, 304–307 (2021).
Goto, Y. et al. A particulate photocatalyst water-splitting panel for large-scale solar hydrogen generation. Joule 2, 509–520 (2018).
She, Z. W. et al. Combining theory and experiment in electrocatalysis: insights into materials design. Science 355, eaad4998 (2017).
Zhou, P. et al. Solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of more than 9% in photocatalytic water splitting. Nature 613, 66–70 (2023).
Zhou, B. et al. Light-driven synthesis of C2H6 from CO2 and H2O on a bimetallic AuIr composite supported on InGaN nanowires. Nat. Catal. 6, 987–995 (2023).
Kim, S. et al. Asymmetric chloride-mediated electrochemical process for CO2 removal from oceanwater. Energy Environ. Sci. 16, 2030–2044 (2023).
Chen, X. et al. Electrochemical CO2-to-ethylene conversion on polyamine-incorporated Cu electrodes. Nat. Catal. 4, 20–27 (2021).
Mariano, R. G., McKelvey, K., White, H. S. & Kanan, M. W. Selective increase in CO2 electroreduction activity at grain-boundary surface terminations. Science 358, 1187–1192 (2017).
Cargnello, M., Gordon, T. R. & Murray, C. B. Solution-phase synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles and nanocrystals. Chem. Rev. 114, 9319–9345 (2014).
Gewirth, A. A., Varnell, J. A. & Diascro, A. M. Nonprecious metal catalysts for oxygen reduction in heterogeneous aqueous systems. Chem. Rev. 118, 2313–2339 (2018).
Banerjee, A., Dick, G. R., Yoshino, T. & Kanan, M. W. Carbon dioxide utilization via carbonate-promoted C–H carboxylation. Nature 531, 215–219 (2016).
Huang, W. et al. Steam-created grain boundaries for methane C–H activation in palladium catalysts. Science 373, 1518–1523 (2021).
Kowal, A. et al. Ternary Pt/Rh/SnO2 electrocatalysts for oxidizing ethanol to CO2. Nat. Mater. 8, 325–330 (2009).
Xiao, F. et al. Recent advances in electrocatalysts for proton exchange membrane fuel cells and alkaline membrane fuel cells. Adv. Mater. 33, 1–38 (2021).
Tan, J. et al. Hydrogel protection strategy to stabilize water-splitting photoelectrodes. Nat. Energy 7, 537–547 (2022).
Wang, Q., Pornrungroj, C., Linley, S. & Reisner, E. Strategies to improve light utilization in solar fuel synthesis. Nat. Energy 7, 13–24 (2022).
Xu, C., Tang, Q., Tu, W. & Wang, L. Photon and phonon powered photothermal catalysis. Energy Environ. Sci. 17, 4461–4480 (2024).
Li, Y. et al. Electrolyte-assisted polarization leading to enhanced charge separation and solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency of seawater splitting. Nat. Catal. 7, 77–88 (2024).
Uekert, T., Kuehnel, M. F., Wakerley, D. W. & Reisner, E. Plastic waste as a feedstock for solar-driven H2 generation. Energy Environ. Sci. 11, 2853–2857 (2018).
Chen, C. et al. Highly crystalline multimetallic nanoframes with three-dimensional electrocatalytic surfaces. Science 343, 1339–1343 (2014).
Zang, J. et al. Multifunctionality and control of the crumpling and unfolding of large-area graphene. Nat. Mater. 12, 321–325 (2013).
Povia, M. et al. Operando X-ray characterization of high surface area iridium oxides to decouple their activity losses for the oxygen evolution reaction. Energy Environ. Sci. 12, 3038–3052 (2019).
Kao, J., Thorkelsson, K., Bai, P., Rancatore, B. J. & Xu, T. Toward functional nanocomposites: taking the best of nanoparticles, polymers, and small molecules. Chem. Soc. Rev. 42, 2654–2678 (2013).
Vargo, E. et al. Functional composites by programming entropy-driven nanosheet growth. Nature 623, 724–731 (2023).
Wang, D. et al. Structurally ordered intermetallic platinum-cobalt core-shell nanoparticles with enhanced activity and stability as oxygen reduction electrocatalysts. Nat. Mater. 12, 81–87 (2013).
Lang, X., Chen, X. & Zhao, J. Heterogeneous visible light photocatalysis for selective organic transformations. Chem. Soc. Rev. 43, 473–486 (2014).
Li, Z. et al. Iridium single-atom catalyst on nitrogen-doped carbon for formic acid oxidation synthesized using a general host–guest strategy. Nat. Chem. 12, 764–772 (2020).
Wang, J. et al. Synergistic effect of well-defined dual sites boosting the oxygen reduction reaction. Energy Environ. Sci. 11, 3375–3379 (2018).
Oh, J. Y. et al. Intrinsically stretchable and healable semiconducting polymer for organic transistors. Nature 539, 411–415 (2016).
Paxson, A. T., Yagüe, J. L., Gleason, K. K. & Varanasi, K. K. Stable dropwise condensation for enhancing heat transfer via the initiated chemical vapor deposition (iCVD) of grafted polymer films. Adv. Mater. 26, 418–423 (2014).
Mao, X. et al. Self-assembled nanostructures in ionic liquids facilitate charge storage at electrified interfaces. Nat. Mater. 18, 1350–1357 (2019).
Herrero, E., Buller, L. J. & Abruña, H. D. Underpotential deposition at single crystal surfaces of Au, Pt, Ag and other materials. Chem. Rev. 101, 1897–1930 (2001).
Dash, S., de Ruiter, J. & Varanasi, K. K. Photothermal trap utilizing solar illumination for ice mitigation. Sci. Adv. 4, 1–7 (2018).
Tang, Y., Zhang, Y., Li, W., Ma, B. & Chen, X. Rational material design for ultrafast rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. Chem. Soc. Rev. 44, 5926–5940 (2015).
Hochbaum, A. I. et al. Enhanced thermoelectric performance of rough silicon nanowires. Nature 451, 163–167 (2008).
Fabbri, E. et al. Dynamic surface self-reconstruction is the key of highly active perovskite nano-electrocatalysts for water splitting. Nat. Mater. 16, 925–931 (2017).
Goodman, E. D. et al. Catalyst deactivation via decomposition into single atoms and the role of metal loading. Nat. Catal. 2, 748–755 (2019).
Dong, A., Chen, J., Vora, P. M., Kikkawa, J. M. & Murray, C. B. Binary nanocrystal superlattice membranes self-assembled at the liquid-air interface. Nature 466, 474–477 (2010).
Wang, Y. et al. Current understanding and challenges of solar-driven hydrogen generation using polymeric photocatalysts. Nat. Energy 4, 746–760 (2019).
Moniz, S. J. A., Shevlin, S. A., Martin, D. J., Guo, Z. X. & Tang, J. Visible-light driven heterojunction photocatalysts for water splitting-a critical review. Energy Environ. Sci. 8, 731–759 (2015).
Li, C. H. et al. A highly stretchable autonomous self-healing elastomer. Nat. Chem. 8, 618–624 (2016).
Kim, Y., Yuk, H., Zhao, R., Chester, S. A. & Zhao, X. Printing ferromagnetic domains for untethered fast-transforming soft materials. Nature 558, 274–279 (2018).
Zheng, Y., Liu, J., Liang, J., Jaroniec, M. & Qiao, S. Z. Graphitic carbon nitride materials: controllable synthesis and applications in fuel cells and photocatalysis. Energy Environ. Sci. 5, 6717–6731 (2012).
Ran, J., Ma, T. Y., Gao, G., Du, X. W. & Qiao, S. Z. Porous P-doped graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets for synergistically enhanced visible-light photocatalytic H2 production. Energy Environ. Sci. 8, 3708–3717 (2015).
Liu, W. et al. High-efficiency stretchable light-emitting polymers from thermally activated delayed fluorescence. Nat. Mater. 22, 737–745 (2023).
Dai, Y. et al. Stretchable redox-active semiconducting polymers for high-performance organic electrochemical transistors. Adv. Mater. 34, 2201178 (2022).
Lee, C. W. et al. Photochemical tuning of dynamic defects for high-performance atomically dispersed catalysts. Nat. Mater. 23, 552–559 (2024).
Lee, W. H. et al. Floatable photocatalytic hydrogel nanocomposites for large-scale solar hydrogen production. Nat. Nanotechnol. 18, 754–762 (2023).
Lee, W. H. et al. Highly efficient nitrogen-fixing microbial hydrogel device for sustainable solar hydrogen production. Adv. Mater. 35, 2306092 (2023).
Kresse, G. & Furthmüller, J. Efficiency of ab-initio total energy calculations for metals and semiconductors using a plane-wave basis set. Comput. Mater. Sci. 6, 15–50 (1996).
Perdew, J. P., Burke, K. & Ernzerhof, M. Generalized gradient approximation made simple. Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 3865–3868 (1996).
Grimme, S., Ehrlich, S. & Goerigk, L. Effect of the damping function in dispersion corrected density functional theory. J. Comput. Chem. 32, 1456–1465 (2011).
Blöchl, P. E. Projector augmented-wave method. Phys. Rev. B 50, 17953–17979 (1994).
Momma, K. & Izumi, F. VESTA3 for three-dimensional visualization of crystal, volumetric and morphology data. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 44, 1272–1276 (2011).
Zhao, X. & Jin, H. Investigation of hydrogen diffusion in supercritical water: a molecular dynamics simulation study. Int. J. Heat. Mass Transf. 133, 718–728 (2019).
Matsunaga, N., Hori, M. & Nagashima, A. Measurement of mutual diffusion coefficients of gases by the Taylor method: measurements on H2–air, H2–N2, and H2–O2 systems. Heat. Transf. Asian Res. 31, 182–193 (2002).
